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Everything you need to know about crop biodiversity and Indian legislation !
Q.1. What is Biodiversity?
Ans. The biodiversity refers to the variety of life in ail forms, levels and combinations. The term biodiversity includes genetic diversity; species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. In other words, the variety of life forms -the different plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain and ecosystems they may form is referred to as biodiversity.
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It is usually considered at three levels, viz., genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Crop biodiversity refers to the variety of genes and genotypes found in crop plants, Biodiversity is a modern term which simply means “the variety of life on earth”. This variety of life can be measured in several ways.
Q.2. Define Genetic Diversity.
Ans. Genetic diversity refers to the variation between individuals of the same species. This includes genetic variation between individuals in a single population, as well as variations between different populations of the same species. Genetic differences can now be measured using increasingly sophisticated techniques. These differences are the raw material of evolution.
Genetic diversity is the variety present at the level of genes. Genes are made of DNA which determines expression of a trait in an individual. This level of diversity can differ by alleles (different variants of the same gene, such as yellow and white flower colour), by entire genes or by several genes.
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Genetic diversity can be measured at many different levels such as population, species and community. The genetic diversity is important at each of these levels.
The main points related to genetic diversity are listed below:
(i) It represents variation between individuals of the same species.
(ii) It represents the variation at gene level.
(iii) It can be measured at population, species and community levels.
(iv) Sophisticated techniques are required for its measurement.
(v) It represents the raw material for evolution and adaptation,
(vi) It is effected by the environment and competition with other species.
Q.3. What is the relationship between Genetic diversity and Adaptation?
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Ans. The amount of diversity at the genetic level is important because it represents the raw material for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a species or population means a greater ability for some of the individuals in it to adapt to changes in the environment. Less diversity leads to uniformity resulting in poor adaptation.
For example, modern varieties of wheat and rice are high yielding and highly uniform. We can harvest a good crop from such varieties, but can be a problem when a disease or parasite attacks the field, as every plant in the field will be susceptible having the identical genetic constitution. Thus monocultures are unable to deal well with changing conditions.
Q.4. What the effect of environment on Genetic Diversity?
Ans. Within species, genetic diversity often increases with environmental variability, which can .be expected. If the environment often changes, different genes will have an advantage at different times or places. In this situation genetic diversify remains high because many genes are in the population at any given time. If the environment didn’t change, then the small number of genes that had an advantage in that unchanging environment would spread at the cost of the others, causing a drop in genetic diversity.
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Q.5. What is the relationship between Genetic Diversity and Communities?
Ans. In communities, it can increase with the diversity of species. How much it increases depends not only on the number of species, but also on how closely related the species are, Species that are closely related (e.g. two species of wheat) have similar genetic structures and makeup and therefore, do not contribute much additional genetic diversity. These closely related species will contribute to genetic diversity in the community less than more remotely-related species (e.g. a wheat and a barley) would.
An increase in species diversity can also affect the genetic diversity. If there are many species, the genetic diversity at that level will be larger than when there are fewer species. On the other hand, genetic diversity within each species can decrease. This can happen if the large number of species means so much competition that each species must be extremely specialized which will lead to little genetic diversity within any of the species.
Q.6. What is Species Diversity?
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Ans. Species diversity refers to the variety of species in a given region or area. This can either be determined by counting the number of different species present, or by determining taxonomic diversity. Taxonomic diversity is more precise and considers the relationship of species to each other. For example, an area containing three species of wheat and two species of barley is more diverse than an area containing five species of wheat, even though they both contain the same number of species.
High species biodiversity is not always necessarily a good thing. For example, a habitat may have high species biodiversity because many common and widespread species are invading it at the expense of species restricted to that habitat.
The species level crop biodiversity is the easiest to work on both from practical and theoretical point of view. Species are relatively easy to identify by eye in the field, whereas genetic diversity requires laboratories, time and resources to identify. Species are well known and are distinct units of diversity. Each species can be considered to have a particular “role” in the ecosystem, so the addition or loss of single species may have consequences for the system as a whole.
The main points related to species diversity are listed below:
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(i) It represents variety of species in a given region or area.
(ii) It identification is easy by naked eye in the field.
(iii) It can be determined simple by counting the number of different species.
(iv) Species are distinct units of diversity.
Q.7. What is Ecosystem Diversity?
Ans. Ecosystem diversity refers to communities of plants and animals, together with the physical characteristics of their environment (e.g. geology, soil and climate), Ecosystem diversity is more difficult to measure because there are rarely clear cut boundaries between different ecosystems because they overlap into one another, However, if consistent criteria are chosen to define the limits of an ecosystem, then their number and distribution can also be measured.
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Ecosystem-level diversity deals with species distributions and community patterns, the role and function of key species, and combines species functions and interactions. This is the least-understood level of the three types of biodiversity due to the complexity of the interactions.
One of the difficulties in examining communities is that the transitions between them are usually not very sharp. A lake may have a very sharp boundary between it and the deciduous forest it is in, but the deciduous forest will shift much more gradually to grasslands or to a coniferous forest. This lack of sharp boundaries is known as “open communities” (as opposed to “closed communities,” which would have sudden transitions) and makes studying ecosystems difficult.
The main points related to ecosystem biodiversity are given below:
(i) It represents communities of plants and animals together with physical structures of their environment
(ii) The measurement of ecosystem diversity is more difficult than genetic diversity and species diversity.
(iii) The assessment of ecosystem diversity needs many complex measurements to be taken over a long period of time
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(iv) It is a time consuming task and completion of such work requires adequate staff and financial support.
Q.8. What are the differences between genetic diversity and species diversity?
Ans. There are several differences between genetic diversity and species diversity which are presented in Table 3.1.
Q.9. What are Advantages of Crop Biodiversity?
Ans. There are several advantages of crop biodiversity. Some important advantages or benefits of crop biodiversity are briefly presented as follows.
The crop biodiversity provides:
(i) Protection from biotic stresses such as diseases and insects.
(ii) Protection from abiotic stresses such as drought, soil salinity, soil alkalinity, soil acidity, cold temperature, heat etc.
(iii) Choice of quality for food and other items,
(iv) Choice of items for food, fibre, oil, fuel, fodder to animals, timber and medicines.
(v) Wider adaptation to environmental changes.
(vi) Broad genetic base to the populations.
Q.10. What are the reasons for Loss of crop biodiversity?
Ans. There are two main reasons of depletion of biodiversity in crop plants, viz., extinction and genetic erosion. Extinction refers to permanent loss of a crop species due to various reasons. Genetic erosion refers to the gradual reduction in genetic variability, in population of a species, due to elimination of various genotypes.
There are five main reasons of genetic erosion as follows:
(i) Replacement of Land Races by Modern Cultivars
(ii) Industrial agriculture
(iii) Farming into wild habitat.
(iv) Clean Cultivation.
(v) Developmental Activities such as development of national high ways, towns, cities, airports, seaports etc.
Q.11. What is the need for Conservation of Biodiversity?
Ans. Conservation refers to protection of genetic diversity of crop plants from genetic erosion. The loss of biodiversity poses a serious threat to agriculture and the livelihoods of millions of people. Conserving biodiversity and using it wisely is a global necessity, Biodiversity provides the foundation for our agricultural systems. It provides the sources of traits to improve yield, quality, resistance to pests and diseases and adapt to changing environmental conditions, such as global warming.
The protection of plant diversity is essential for food security and ecological well-being. Biodiversity is also a direct source of food for many people and is a essential part of our life support system. Without biodiversity our ecosystems, the planet’s entire biosphere, cannot function.
Q.12. What are approaches of conserving biodiversity?
Ans. There are different approaches to conserving biodiversity and different ways of using genetic resources.
These are:
(i) On farm management,
(ii) In-situ conservation,
(iii) Ex-situ conservation and
(iv) Complementary conservation.
Q.13. Describe on farm management of biodiversity.
Ans. On farm management involves the maintenance of crop species on the farm or in home gardens. The effectiveness of strategies to maintain and use crop or livestock diversity on farms depends on the extent to which local varieties continue to meet the needs of farmers and communities, Many plant genetic resources, especially those of minor crops, are managed as part of agricultural production systems. This type of biodiversity conservation has been termed ‘conservation through use’.
There are important reasons for supporting on farm maintenance of crop and livestock diversity:
It ensures the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation of crops to their environments.
i. It allows for the continued selection of superior material by farmers that meets their needs and preferences,
ii. It helps preserve indigenous knowledge, strengthens local institutions and promotes farmers’ participation in national biodiversity conservation programmes.
iii. It provides a necessary backup to gene bank collection.
iv. It provides natural laboratories for agricultural research.
The biodiversity of only those species can be maintained on the cultivators’ farms in home gardens which have greater use to the farmers and rural communities.
Q.14. What is In-situ conservation?
Ans. In situ (= on-site) conservation and use refers to the maintenance and use of wild plant populations in the habitats where they naturally occur and have evolved without the help of human beings. In other words, it refers to conservation of biodiversity under natural habitats. In this method, the wild species and the complete ecosystems are preserved together. The wild populations regenerate naturally, and are dispersed naturally by wild animals, winds and in water courses.
The evolution is purely driven by environmental pressures and any changes in one component affect the other. The main focus of Biodiversity’s work is on the maintenance of the genetic diversity of the wild species and wild relatives of crop plants in the protected areas (national parks and nature reserves).
Q.15. What are advantages and disadvantages of in-situ conservation of biodiversity?
Ans. The advantages and disadvantages of in-situ conservation of biodiversity are presented below:
Advantages:
i. The biodiversity is conserved under natural habitats,
ii. It improves of the populations.
iii. It conserve complete ecosystem means several species together,
iv. It protects endangered species in their original habitats,
Disadvantages:
i. It requires establishment of gene sanctuaries and national parks.
ii. Several areas have to be conserved to protect a single species,
iii. The management of protected areas poses several problems.
iv. It is costly method of biodiversity conservation.
Q.16. What is Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity?
Ans. Ex situ (= off-site) conservation of germplasm takes place outside the natural habitat or outside the production system, in facilities specifically created for this purpose. Depending on the type of species to be conserved, different ex situ conservation methods may be used. The gene banks are used for ex situ conservation of biodiversity. In gene banks, biodiversity is conserved for its sustainable use by breeders, farmers and researchers for agricultural development.
To make the genetic resources useful to farmers, breeders and researchers, gene bank managers must carefully document the collected materials, make the information available and establish a transparent and safe system for its distribution. Such material should be used by breeders and other researchers for agricultural development.
Q.17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Ex situ conservation of biodiversity?
Ans. The advantages and disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity are given below:
Advantages:
i. One species can be conserved at one place.
ii. The biodiversity is conserved either in seed gene banks or in field gene banks.
iii. Handling of material is easy.
iv. It requires less space for conservation.
Disadvantages:
i. It requires establishment of seed gene banks and field gene banks.
ii. It require regular funding for maintenance of gene banks.
iii. It involves high technical man power.
iv. It requires periodical rejuvenation in case of seed crops.
Q.18. What are differences between In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity?
Ans. There are several differences-between In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity which are presented in Table 3.2.
Q.19. Describe briefly complementary conservation of biodiversity.
Ans. It involves a proper combination of different conservation approaches for the sustainable use (in present and future) of genetic diversity existing in a target gene pool.
A proper combination of different methods depends on the species being conserved, the local infrastructure and human resources, the number of accessions in a given collection, its geographic site and intended use of the conserved germplasm.
It does not advocate a particular method. A good complementary conservation strategy does not categorize crops or species into definitive classes. It is dynamic, and lends itself to meet the challenges of changes that are occurring in the field of genetic resources as it is open to new technologies and new needs.
Q.20. What is Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
Ans. The Convention on Biological Diversity is also known as the Biodiversity Convention. It is an international treaty that was adopted in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993. The biodiversity agreement has been signed by 189 countries.
Q.21. What are the main goals of CBD?
Ans. The Convention has following three main goals:
i. Conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity)
ii. Sustainable use of its components; and
iii. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
Q.22. What is Cartagena Protocol?
Ans. The Cartagena Protocol also known as the Biosafety Protocol, was adopted in January’ 2000. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic benefits. It will allow countries to ban imports of a genetically modified organism if or product which is not safe for use.
Q.23. What are the main functions of the Conference of the Parties (COP)?
Ans. The convention’s governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP), consisting of all governments (and regional economic integration organizations) that have ratified the treaty.
The main functions of COP are to:
(i) Review progress under the Convention,
(ii) Identifies new priorities,
(iii) Sets work plans for members,
(iv) Make amendments to the Convention,
(v) Create expert advisory bodies,
(vi) Review progress reports by member nations, and
(vii) Collaborate with other international organizations and agreements.
The Conference of the Parties uses expertise and support from several other bodies that are established by the convention. In addition to committees or mechanisms established on an ad hoc basis, two main organs are Secretariat and SBSTTA.
Q.24. What are the function of the Secretariat of CBD?
Ans. The CBD Secretariat is based in Montreal (Canada). It operates under the United Nations Environment Programme.
The main functions of the secretariat are to:
(i) Organize meetings,
(ii) Draft documents,
(iii) Assist member governments in the implementation of the programme of work,
(iv) Coordinate with other international organizations, and
(v) Collect and disseminate information.
Q.25. What is the role SBSTTA?
Ans. The Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) is a committee composed of experts from member governments competent in relevant fields. It plays a key role in making recommendations to the COP on scientific and technical issues.
Thirteenth Meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA-13) was held from 18 to 22 February 2008 in the FAO at Rome, Italy. SBSTTA-13 delegates met in the Committee of the Whole in the morning to finalize and adopt recommendations on the in-depth reviews of the work programmes on agricultural and forest biodiversity and SBSTT A’s modus operandi for the consideration of new and emerging issues.
Q.26. What is Indian Biodiversity Legislation?
Ans. In India the Biological Diversity Act (also called biodiversity act) was passed by the Central Government in 2002. The purpose of The Biodiversity Act -2002 is to protect India’s rich biodiversity (genetic resources) and associated knowledge against their use by foreign individuals, institutions or companies without sharing the benefits arising out of such use, and check bio-piracy.
Q.27. Describe the Structures of Indian Biodiversity Act – 2002?
Ans. The biodiversity Act provides for establishment of a three tiered structure at the national, state and local level.
It includes:
(i) National Biodiversity Authority (NBA),
(ii) State Biodiversity Boards (SBB), and
(iii) Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs).
Q.28. What is the role of National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)?
Ans. It deals with all matters relating to requests for access by foreign individuals,, institutions or companies, and all matters relating to transfer of results of research to any foreigner.
Q.29. What are the functions of State Biodiversity Boards (SBB)?
Ans. All matters relating to access by Indians for commercial purposes will be under the purview of the State Biodiversity Boards (SBB). The Indian industry will be required to provide prior intimation to the concerned SBB about the use of biological resource. The State Board will have the power to restrict any such activity, which violates the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits.
Q.30. What is the role of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)?
Ans. Institutions of local self-government will be required to set up Biodiversity Management Committees in their respective areas for conservation, sustainable use, documentation of biodiversity and chronicling of knowledge relating to biodiversity. NBA and SBBs are required to consult the concerned’ BMCs on matters related to use of biological resources and associated knowledge within their jurisdiction.
Q.31. Is there need for seeking permission of the National Biodiversity Authority for carrying out research?
Ans. There is no need for seeking permission of the National Biodiversity Authority for carrying out research, if it is carried out in India by Indians, as well as under collaborative research projects that have been drawn within the overall policy guidelines formulated by the Central Government.
The only situations that would require permission of the NBA are:
(i) When the results of any research which has made use of the country’s biodiversity is sought to be commercialized,
(ii) When the results of research are shared with a foreigner or foreign institution, and
(iii) When a foreign institution/ individual wants access to the country’s biodiversity for undertaking research.
Q.32. What are the Exemptions of Indian Biodiversity Act 2002?
Ans. The legislation provides for the following exemptions:
(i) Exemption to local people and community of the area for free access to use biological resources within India.
(ii) Exemptions to growers and cultivators of biodiversity and to vaids and Hakims to use biological resources.
(iii) Exemption through notification of normally traded commodities from the purview of the Act.
(iv) Exemption for collaborative research through government sponsored or government approved institutions subject to overall policy guidelines and approval of the Central Government.
(v) The value added products have been excluded from the definition of biological resources.
(vi) The Indian researchers neither require prior approval nor need to give prior intimation to SBB for obtaining biological resource for conducting research in India.
Q.33. What is the impact of Biodiversity Act on Indian Industry?
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Ans. The Indian industry is required to give prior intimation to the concerned SBB about obtaining the biological resources for commercial purposes. The SBB will have the power to prohibit or restrict any such activity, which violates the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits.
Q.34. What is the impact of Biodiversity Act on Indian Ayurvedic Industry?
Ans. The Act does not aim at banning the use of medicinal plants. It ‘provides that for commercial use of resources and related knowledge by Indians only, prior intimation to the State Biodiversity Board is required, Hakims and vaids will continue to have free access to resources and knowledge.
Q.35. Is there overlapping of Biodiversity Bill and Plant Varieties Protection Act?
Ans. There is no overlap between Biodiversity Bill and Plant Varieties Protection (PVP). Act the scope and objectives of these two legislations are different. The PVP legislation, accords intellectual property rights to a person for developing a new plant variety. On the other hand, the biodiversity legislation is primarily aimed at regulating access to biological resources and associated knowledge so as to ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use.
The Act provides that prior approval of NBA is necessary before applying for any kind of IPRs based on any research or information on a biological resource obtained from India. However, in case of patents, permission of the NBA may be obtained after acceptance of the patent but before sealing of the patent. This has been done to protect the priority date of the patent applicant.
Q.36. What are Heritage sites?
Ans. The Act provides for designating heritage sites. These are areas of biodiversity importance, which harbour rich biodiversity, wild relatives of crops, or areas, which lie outside the protected area network. The purpose is not to cover the already designated protected areas such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
Q.37. What is the provision for Threatened species?
Ans. The Act (Section 38) provides for notifying threatened species and prohibits or regulates their collection. It also provides for taking appropriate steps to rehabilitate and preserve those species, thereby ensuring their conservation and management.
Q.38. What is the Check on Bio-piracy by Indian Biodiversity Act 2002?
Ans. To check bio piracy, the proposed Legislation provides that access to biological resources and associated knowledge is subject to terms and conditions, which secure equitable sharing of benefits. Further, it would be required to obtain the approval of the National Biodiversity Authority before seeking any IPR based on biological material and associated knowledge obtained from India.
Q.39. Who are the Benefit claimers of biological resources?
Ans. The benefit claimers are conservers of biological resources, creators and holders of knowledge and information relating to the uses of biological resources. While granting approvals, NBA will impose conditions, which secure equitable share in the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources occurring in India or knowledge relating to them.
These benefits could include monetary gains, grant of joint ownership of IPRs, transfer of technology, association of Indian Scientists in R&D, setting up of venture capital fund etc. In cases where specific individuals, or group of individuals are identifiable, the monetary benefits will be paid directly to them, otherwise, the amount will be deposited in the National Biodiversity Fund.
